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Anand & Sternthal infection pathophysiology buy cipro 500 mg without prescription, 1990) infection 4 weeks after wisdom teeth removal 750mg cipro with mastercard, music had a detrimental effect on recall at shorter times because it distracted cognitive resources from the rehearsal of brand information thereby hindering attention antibiotic resistance is caused by quality cipro 750 mg. As cognitive resources increased to the point when those available matched those required antibiotic 7146 buy discount cipro 500mg on-line, information was sufficiently processed and a higher level of recall was exhibited. Music increased the brand attitude for subjects in the low involvement condition but had a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition. While the notion of fit was not specifically studied in Park and Young (1986), the music was selected since it was "best suited" for the commercial. MacInnis and Park (1991) examine two dimensions of music including its fit with the ad and the extent to which it arouses emotion laden memories. The emotion laden quality of the music had similar effects on attention to the music and affective response for both high and low involvement participants. For low involvement participants, the emotion laden quality enhanced message processing while it seemed to distract high involvement participants from processing the message. Similarly, while fit had similar effects on high and low involvement participants by focusing attention on the music and the message, it created different effects on their affective responses. Lack of fit created more negative emotions for low than for high involvement participants. An unexpected finding of this research was the strong impact of fit on both positive emotions and attitude toward the ad. Kellaris, Cox, and Cox (1993) examined the fit or congruency of music and the message (low, high) and the attention getting value of music (low, high) along with a no music control group. The dependent measures consisted of recall and recognition of brand names and message arguments in the context of a radio ad. This research found that when background music was congruent, attention getting music increased recall and recognition of brand names. The no music ads performed as well or better than the musical ads in terms of recall and recognition. The relationship between the fit of the mood induced music (happy/sad) and the purchase occasion (happy/sad) and its effect on purchase was studied by Alpert, Alpert, and Maltz (2005). While mood induced by music did not exhibit a main effect on purchase intentions, its interaction with fit was significant. The authors conclude that when music is used to evoke emotions congruent with the symbolic meaning of the product, the likelihood of purchase is increased. Music and Tempo Music is a key element in determining the atmosphere of a service or retail environment. Milliman (1982, 1986) researched the influence of background music tempo in a supermarket and in a restaurant. In the supermarket study, Milliman (1982) varied the tempo of classical music (fast, slow) and found that the pace of the in-store traffic was significantly slower with slow tempo music compared to fast tempo music. Also, higher sales volume was associated with slower tempo music and lower sales figures were associated with faster tempo music. Interestingly, when shoppers were asked about their awareness of background music, the majority of participants were not sure if music was in the background or they were incorrect. In the context of restaurant dining, Milliman (1986) varied the tempo of the background music (slow, fast) and found that with slower music, patrons stayed longer, ate about the same amount of food but consumed more alcoholic beverages. The author conjectured that the slower, more relaxing environment created a greater approach condition for the diners. In the context of a travel agency service, participants viewed a video in which the four music conditions varied in the arousal quality through changes in tempo (Chebat, Chebat, & Vaillant, 2001). This research found that highly arousing music hampered cognitive activity and the authors argue that the "fit" between the highly arousing music and their context of the message from the travel agency was low. Similar to MacInnis and Park (1991), this study showed that when highly arousing music drew attention to itself, the effect was to reduce cognitive resources available for information processing and also reduce recall. In contrast, the slow tempo music did not attract attention to itself and did not interfere with the cognitive resources used to process the message. However, the authors caution that the deeper the cognitive activity, the more negative the attitude toward the employee and toward the visit. Music and Atmospherics Several studies have not simply manipulated an aspect of music but rather manipulated the image or atmosphere of a retail setting with music as an element. The purpose of the research was not related to music but was to advance a model for the study of consumer evaluation of choice alternatives given uncertainty about the alternative and attributes.
Results showed that there was increased affect toward familiar stimuli and toward words transmitted to the right ear and music transmitted to the left ear antibiotics heartburn generic cipro 1000mg without prescription. The authors argue that this evidence supports a cognitive affective model in which affective responses are formed with cognitive mediation rather than the independence of the affective and cognitive systems virus free download buy cipro pills in toronto. In the context of product placement antibiotics newborns order cipro pills in toronto, Russell (2002) examined the modality of presentation (auditory drinking on antibiotics for sinus infection cipro 250 mg with mastercard, visual) of the product placement as well as the connection between the plot of a show (more or less connected). An auditory placement refers to the brand being mentioned in the dialog of the show while a visual placement is the appearance of the brand on the screen. The author stated that since the auditory channel caries the plot of the show, it is inherently more meaningful than the visual channel in the context of product placement. Thus, a congruent modality/plot connection exists when either the product placement is audio and the product is integrated into the plot of the show or the product placement is visual and the connection to the plot is minor. A product/plot mismatch occurs when either the placement is audio and the product is not integrated into the plot or the placement is visual and the product is integrated into the plot. Memory improved when the modality and plot connection were incongruent but persuasion was enhanced by congruency. Incongruent placements adversely affected brand attitudes because they seemed out of place and were discounted. The effects of presentation modality (audio, visual) along with the modality of imagery (audio, visual) and the influence on learning was researched by Unnava, Agarwal, and Haugtvedt (1996). Results showed that there was greater advertising recall when the presentation modality differed from the imagery modality. The cognitive resources that were used in the process of imaging were the same that were used in perceptual tasks of the same modality so mutual interference between imaging and perceptual tasks inhibited message learning. In a related study, Costley, Das, and Brucks (1997) asked the question of whether the modality of the retrieval cue (audio or visual) affects the recall of information originally presented in the same versus different modalities. Results are explained using the encoding specificity principle (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). This principle states that the likelihood of recall improves as the features present in the environment when the memory is encoded match those present in the retrieval environment. Features can include aspects of the stimulus context such as the modality of the information presented. Tavassoli and Lee (2003) examined auditory and visual elements in advertising in the context of Chinese logographs (which rely more on visual processing) and English works (which rely more on audio and sound based processing). Findings indicated that auditory elements interfered more with the learning of and cognitive responding to English ad copy than with Chinese copy and vice versa for visual elements. However, auditory elements are better retrieval cues for English than for Chinese copy and vice versa of visual elements. The authors concluded that non-verbal elements in advisements such as auditory cues can compete for cognitive resources during message encoding but can also serve as effective memory cues. While music was not the focus of this research, various forms of music were used throughout the three experiments. In one study, preschoolers and school aged children were used to examine information presented using audio messages and visual messages (Macklin, 1994). Children that only heard the information and children who only saw the information performed equally well on learning (there was no visual superiority effect). However, presenting information both visually and by audio was the most effective. When incomplete visuals were presented, school aged children had the ability to imagine the remainder of the visual while preschool aged children could not. The author argues that a critical element in processing is the comprehensibility of the information rather than the modality. Sense of Touch the sense of touch, or haptics (touch with the hands) has historically been the least studied sense in marketing. Perhaps the rise of online and catalog shopping, and an inability to physically examine products prior to purchase has spurred this area of research. The primary categories of touch and haptic research include the differences in product attributes that encourage touch, individual differences in the motivation to touch, and situational influences that encourage touch.
Cancellation and focus: the role of shared and unique features in the choice process antibiotics walmart order cipro overnight delivery. Distinguishing gains from nonlosses and losses from nongains: A regulatory focus perspective on hedonic intensity antibiotic resistant e coli cipro 250 mg sale. Becoming famous overnight: Limits on the ability to avoid unconscious influences of the past bacteria questions and answers buy cipro overnight delivery. Brand retrieval antibiotics for uti and drinking purchase cipro without a prescription, consideration set composition, consumer choice, and the pioneering advantage. Remembering mistaken for knowing: Ease of retrieval as a basis for confidence in answers to general knowledge questions. Bringing the frame into focus: the influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Contrast effects in consumer judgments: Changes in mental representations or in the anchoring of response scales The dissection of selection in person perception: Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping. Motivational and cultural variations in morality salience effects: Contemplations on terror management theory and consumer behavior. When automatic accessibility meets conscious content: Implications for judgment formation. Ease of retrieval as an automatic input in judgments: A mere-accessibility framework Personal storytelling as a medium of socialization in Chinese and American families. Contrast effects as determined by the type of prime: Trait versus exemplar primes initiate processing strategies that differ in how accessible constructs are used. Hypothesis-consistent testing and semantic priming in the anchoring paradigm: A selective accessibility model. The "relative self": Informational and judgmental consequences of comparative self-evaluation. Effects of mood during exposure to target information on subsequently reported judgments: An on-line model of assimilation and contrast. The effects of decoys on preference shifts: the role of attractiveness and providing justification. Effects of priming a bipolar attribute concept on dimension versus concept-specific accessibility of semantic memory. Contemplations on a terror management account of materialism and consumer behavior. Some further evidence for the "Socratic effect" using a subjective probability model of cognitive organization. Social explanation and social expectation: Effects of real and hypothetical explanations on subjective likelihood. A time to tan: Proximal and distal effects of mortality salience on sun exposure intentions. When debiasing backfi res: Accessible content and accessibility experiences in debiasing hindsight. Constructing reality and its alternatives: An inclusion/exclusion model of assimilation and contrast effects in social judgment. Judgment in a social context: Biases, shortcomings, and the logic of conversation. Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Priming against your will: How goal pursuit is affected by accessible alternatives. When opportunity knocks: Bottom-up priming of goals by means and its effects on self-regulation. Heart and mind in conflict: the interplay of affect and cognition in consumer decision making.
A related concept is frequency of instantiation antibiotic urinary tract infection buy discount cipro 250 mg, or the frequency with which an item appears as an instance of the category (Barsalou virus 2014 buy cipro 750 mg online, 1985) antibiotics for menopausal acne buy cipro with american express. A second explanation for this linear relationship is that typical category members are more likely than atypical category members to have valued attributes bacteria have an average generation time purchase cipro 1000mg mastercard, as the category has evolved over time (Loken & Ward, 1990). New category members tend to include attributes that are valued by consumers, and these attributes tend to overlap with attributes that are more common for typical than for atypical category members. If the value of attributes underlies this relationship, then categories with negatively valued attributes should show the opposite effect, and they do (Ward & Loken 1988). This explanation might also explain why earlier research on taxonomic categories did not find a positive relationship between typicality and attitude (Rosch, 1973). Because some categories had a positive relationship and other categories had a negative relationship, these patterns averaged to zero. In the context of brand categories, as noted earlier, new category members (new brand extensions) are better liked when they are similar to , or typical of, the parent brand (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Boush & Loken, 1991; Boush et al. Hence, in this context, too, greater typicality is related to more positive affect. While the nature of the criteria used for establishing similarity, typicality, or "fit" between the new extension and the parent brand varies for these studies, the conclusion is the same: In the absence of any relevant negative information about the brand extension, a greater fit contributes to more acceptance and stronger affect toward the new extension. In these studies, the brand categories examined were ones associated most with positive (rather than negative) features. Wanke, Bless, and Schwarz (1998) found that when the name of a sports car extension suggested continuation rather than discontinuation of prior models of the brand, people evaluated the new extension positively (as they would a typical sports car). Conversely, when the name suggested discontinuation, contrast effects occurred, particularly among nonexperts. Research on alignable differences produces analogous effects as similarity and typicality. Alignable (versus nonalignable) differences have been found to increase brand evaluations in comparative ads (Zhang, Kardes, & Cronley, 2002). A different research stream finds that the linear relationship between typicality and attitude breaks down in certain contexts, and shows that moderate levels of typicality induce more positive affect than low or high levels of typicality. According to this view, when consumers have abundant cognitive resources and are highly motivated to process information, the thought processes generated under a moderate level of incongruity are more pleasing than under a low level of incongruity. If the category is extremely similar, elaborative thought is less likely to be generated, resulting in more mildly positive affect. Meyers-Levy and Tybout found that the resulting positive affect deriving from the effort does indeed transfer to the target stimulus. Other research replicates the moderate incongruity effect (Meyers-Levy, Louie & Curren, 1994; Stayman, Alden & Smith, 1992). Peracchio and Tybout (1996), however, argue that for the moderate incongruity effect to occur, people need to have low prior knowledge of the category. Specifically, people with low prior knowledge will be more sensitive to category-inconsistent information, whereas people with high prior knowledge will be more likely to rely on their prior knowledge about salient category attributes. Other research finds that the effect disappears under conditions of risk aversion (Campbell & Goodstein, 2001), or for people high in dogmatism (Meyers-Levy & Tybout, 1989). Finally, under some circumstances, novelty and variety increase affect (Woll & Graesser, 1982). To the extent that a novel or unusual category member is more atypical of the category, typicality and affect are related negatively (Ward & Loken, 1988). In this case, the atypical members of the category are positively valued for their novel attributes. An area for future research is to investigate under what conditions these attributes are considered novel and positive, and under what conditions they appear atypical and less positive. In sum, however, most studies support a strong positive, linear relationship between typicality and affect, as long as the category has valued attributes. As mentioned in an earlier section, various measures (ideals, attribute structure, fuzzy-set measures) are correlated with global measures of prototypicality. Similar correlational studies have been used in studying the roles that context and goals play in altering category representations.
Their work to adopt the order-of-merit method resulted in subsequent usage by many investigators infection years after hip replacement cheap 250mg cipro visa. Adams believed in testing factors in isolation applying a "mathematical exactness" in examining various elements found in advertising virus image cipro 750mg low price. In Advertising and Mental Laws he repeats his criticism but also devotes one chapter on the use of statistical tools to examine response to advertising (correlation and variance) bacteria 600x order cipro 250mg line, and another on experimentation in advertising best antibiotics for acne vulgaris order 1000 mg cipro otc. His concluding chapter dealt with the empirical findings related to gender differences. He noted that women paid attention more to size, personal appeals and observed events while men attended more to successive presentations, pictures, industrial-job related, and recommendations of authorities. Of peculiar interest, he found that memory tests contradicted the attention effects. For example, women had better memory with successive presentations and pictures, while men had better memory based on size of ad and for trade names. The comprehensive books by Adams and Starch, each promoting the importance of the empirical results to date, set the tone for much work to follow. For example, Adams (1916b), still maintaining the mentalist approach, went on to study the relative memory for duplication and variation, and sizes of ads (Adams 1917), as well as the effect of order of presentation (Adams, 1920). His first chapter examines the "stream of thought" in a sale, prescribing six stages in a sale: attention, interest, desire, confidence, decision and action, and satisfaction. The book clearly takes an eclectic approach, citing researchers and theorists from all three schools of psychology: mentalist, behaviorist, and dynamic. Kitson contributed to the study of advertising as well, especially with his studies regarding illustrations within advertising (Kitson, 1921), and more specifically the use of color (Kitson, 1922a), various art forms (Kitson, 1922b), package illustrations (Kitson & Campbell, 1924), and illustrations containing people (Kitson & Allen, 1925). Indeed, in 1921, Kitson presented his "historical method of investigating problems in advertising. This continued focus on illustration is one of the first examples of programmatic research in consumer psychology. The influence of these associations are reflected in his lifelong interest in physiological psychology and objective response. He never lost this interest and continued in this vane through much of his career. However, his strongest interest was in the area of applied psychology (see 1921 edition of American Men in Science). After conducting a number of studies, he published the book entitled Psychology in Advertising in 1925. This imposing tome is a remarkable recapitulation of all the conceptual and empirical work up to that time. Aside from a through review of traditional subjects like memory and attention, and some focus on methodology, statistics, measurement, and appeal, Poffenberger provided new reviews in comprehension, "feeling tone," attitude, human desires, and individual and group differences, among others. Poffenberger followed this book with Applied Psychology: Its Principles and Methods (1927, 1932). Here he defined applied psychology as "every situation in which human behavior is involved and where economy of human energy is of practical importance. However, a number of applied researchers were beginning to employ more objective measures reflecting a clear leaning toward the behavioral approach. Poffenberger was arguably the most prolific examining face types (Poffenberger & Franken, 1923), return of coupon resulting from advertising (Poffenberger, 1923a), belief consistency with advertisement (1923b) and the value of lines used in advertising (Poffenberger & Barrows, 1924). He voiced concern over he reliability of differences in memory tests between the two types of ads, and designed and employed a method whereby researchers could observe where visual attention was focused. Up to this point, researchers from Gale forward suggested that more attention would be paid to relevant messages about products as opposed to irrelevant messages. As was noted above (and will be discussed in depth below), at this time psychologists began to consider other aspects of consumer behavior. For example, Geissler (1917) pointed out that consumers needed to be approached in more ways than just advertising and began to study processing that occurred in consideration of purchase. Laird (1923) compared demographic and socioeconomic differences in the selection of toothpaste, and Hotchkiss and Franken (1923) considered the importance of brand familiarity. James McKeen Cattell was eventually dismissed from Columbia because of his opposition to the draft. In 1921 he, along with Columbia colleagues Woodworth and Thorndike, formed the the Psychological Corporation in New York.
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