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H o mo l o g o u s c h r o mo s o me s p a i r, a n d e a c h me mb e r o f e the p a i r c o n s i s t s o f t w o c h r o ma. D o u b l e - s t r u c t u r e d c h r o mo s o me s p u l lE a An r tp h a s e o f the f i r s t me i o t i c. D u r i n g the s e c o n d me i o t i c d i v i s i o n, the d o u b l e - s t r u c t u r e d. At c o mp l e t i o n o f d i v i s i o n, c h r o mo s o me s i n e a c h o f the f o u r d a u g h t e r c e l l s a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a c h o the r. As s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s, p o i n t s o f i n t e r c h a n g e a r e t e mp o r a r i l y u n i t e d a n d f o r m a n X- l i k e s t r u c t u r e, c h i a s m a(F i g. As a r e s u l t o f me i o t i c d i v i s i o n s, (a) g e n e t i c v a r i a b i l i t y i s e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h c r o s s o v e r, w h i c h r e d i s t r i b u t e s g e n e t i c ma t e r i a l, a n d t h r o u g h r a n d o m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h o mo l o g o u s c h r o mo s o me s t o the d a u g h t e r c e l l s; a n d (b) e a c h g e r m c e l l c o n t a i n s a h a p l o i d n u mb e r o f c h r o mo s o me s, s o t h a t a t f e r t i l i za t i o n the d i p l o i d n u mb e r o f 4 6 i s restored. S i mi l a r l y, o n e p r i ma r y s p e r ma t o c y t e g i v e s r i s e t o f o u r d a u g h t e r c e l l s, t w o w i t h 2 2 p l u s 1 X c h r o mo s o me s a n d t w o w i t h 2 2 p l u s 1 Y c h r o mo sF ime s. T h e p r i mi t i v e f e ma l e g e r m c e l l (p r i ma r y o o c y t e) p r o d u c e s o n l y o n e ma t u r e g a me t e, the ma t u r e o o cB. It i s e s t i ma t e d t h a t 50% of conceptions end in spontaneous abortion and that 50% of these a b o r t u s e s h a v e ma j o r c h r o mo s o ma l a b n o r ma l i t i e s. T h u s, a p p r o xi ma t e l y 2 5 % o f c o n c e p t u s e s h a v e a ma j o r c h r o mo s o ma l d e f e c t. T h e mo s t c o mmo n c h r o mo s o ma l a b n o r ma l i t i e s i n a b o r t u s e s a r e 4 5, X (T u r n e r s y n d r o me), t r i p l o i d y, a n d t r i s o my 1 6. C h r o mo s o ma l a b n o r ma l i t i e s a c c o u n t f o r 7 % o f ma j o r b i r t h d e f n e t s, a n d ge ec m utations ccount for an additional 8%. N o r ma l s o ma t i c c e ld spaoed o r 2n; n o r ma l g a me t e s a r e l i l r i, h a p l o i d o r n. W h e n, a t f e r t i l i za t i o n, a g a me t e h a v i n g 2 3 c h r o mo s o me s f u s e s w i t h a g a me t e h a v i n g 2 4 o r 2 2 c h r o mo s o me s, the r e s u l t i s a n i n d i v i d u a l w i the i the r 4 7 c h r o mo s o me s (t r i s o my) o r 4 5 c h r o mo s o me s (mo n o s o my). N o n d i s j u n c t i o n, w h i c h o c c u r s d u r i n g e i the r the f i r s t o r the s e c o n d me i o t i c d i v i s i o n o f the g e r m c e l l s, ma y i n v o l v e the a u t o s o me s o r s e x c h r o mo s o me s. In w o me n, the i n c i d e n c e o f c h r o mo s o ma l a b n o r ma l i t i e s, i n c l u d i n g n o n d i s j u n c t i o n, i n c r e a s e s w i t h a g e, e s p e c i a l l y a t 3 5 y e a r s a n d o l d e r. O c c a s i o n a l l y, n o n d i s j u n c t i o n o c c u r s d u r i n g m i tto tsi ic n o n d i s j u n c t iio n) (mi o s n a n e mb r y o n i c c e l l d u r i n g the e a r l i e s t c e l l d i v i s i o n s. S u c h c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c e m o s a i c i s m w i t h s o me c e l l s h a v i n g a n a b n o r ma l c h r o mo s o me n u mb e r a n d, o the r s b e i n g n o r ma l. Af f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s ma y e xh i b i t f e w o r ma n y o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a p a r t i c u l a r s y n d r o me, d e p e n d i n g o n the n u mb e r o f c e l l s involved and their distribution. C S o me t i me s c h r o mo s o me s b r e a k, a n d p i e c e s o f o n e c h r o mo s o me a t t a c h t o a n o the r. S u c h a n s l o c a t i o n s y b e a l a n c e,d i n w h i c h c a s e b r e a k a g e a n d tr ma b r e u n i o n o c c u r b e t w e e n t w o c h r o mo s o me s b u t n o c r i t i c a l g e n e t i c ma t e r i a l i s l o s t a n d i n d i v i d u a l s a r e n o r ma l; o r the y u n b aba n c e, di n w h i c h c a s e p a r t o f ma y l e o n e c h r o mo s o me i s l o s t a n d a n a l t e r e d p h e n o t y p e i s p r o d u c e d. Tr i s o m y 2 1 (D o w n S y n d r o m e) D o w n s y n d r o mie u s u a l l y c a u s e d b y a n e xt r a c c h r oo f o s o m e 2 1 s opy m (t r i s o m y 2 1)s e eF i g. F u r the r mo r e, n e a r l y a l l d e v e l o p s i g n s o f Al zh e i me r d i s e a s e a f t e r a g e 3 5. In 9 5 % o f c a s e s, the s y n d r o me i s c a u s e d b y t r i s o my 2 1 r e s u l t i n g f r o m me i o t i c nondisjunction, and in 75% of these instances, nondisjunction occurs during o o c y t e f o r ma t i o n. T h e i n c i d e n c e o f D o w n s y n d r o me i s a p p r o xi ma t e l y 1 i n 2, 0 0 0 c o n c e p t u s e s f o r w o me n u n d e r a g e 2 5. T h i s r i s k i n c r e a s e s w i t h ma t e r n a l a g e t o 1 in 300 at age 35 and 1 in 100 at age 40.
When these tumors reach large sizes hypertension 34 weeks pregnant order coreg amex, intratumoral large vessels (called macroaneurysms) and areas of hemorrhage may appear blood pressure chart stroke purchase coreg 6.25 mg. Liposarcoma pulse pressure 72 buy cheap coreg on line, Hepatic Clinical symptoms are aspecific and may appear in the case of compression determined by large masses heart attack and vine cover buy coreg 12.5 mg visa. Reported signs and symptoms include: abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, abdominal distension, and weight loss. Pure lipomas do not enhance after contrast medium administration, but a variable enhancement occurs in lesions containing angiomatous elements. Liposarcoma, Hepatic Liposarcoma is a rare mesenchymal malignancy originating from lipoblasts, which is usually described in the retroperitoneum and extremities and only in very few cases in the liver. On fat-suppressed protocols the lesions appear hypointense; therefore, a distinction from other cases of hyperdensities on T1-weighted sequences such as areas of hemorrhage, copper overload, or peliotic changes is possible. Liposarcoma, Hepatic Imaging findings are not specific and resemble those of other liver sarcomas. Internal hyperechoic and hypoechoic areas related to hemorrhage and necrosis have been described (4, 5). Contrast enhancement is limited, because of the poor vascularity of these lesions. Diagnosis Angiomyolipoma, Hepatic this tumor usually presents as a combination of fat tissue and other tissue types. In the case of very homogeneous predominantly lipomatous tumors, the presence of a posterior acoustic enhancement may be shown. Enhancement of the vascular components is clearly depicted, while the lipomatous areas show little or no enhancement. The hyperintensity is mostly related to the fat content, disappearing with fat-saturated sequences. Lipoma, Hepatic the imaging appearance of lipomas is characteristic, and consequently percutaneous biopsy or surgery is usually unnecessary. The differential diagnosis includes other neoplastic lesions of the liver with fatty degeneration, such as angiomyolipoma, hepatic adenoma, or hepatocellular carcinoma. Fatty hepatocellular carcinoma is usually discovered in cirrhotic patients and it shows a different behavior after contrast medium administration compared with lipoma. L Angiomyolipoma, Hepatic Successful imaging diagnosis relies on the identification of intratumoral fat, although it can be difficult to distinguish this tumor from other fat-containing hepatic tumors. However, this criterion is not sufficient to allow a clear-cut distinction between angiomyolipoma and angiomyelolipoma. The enhancement of the vascularized fatty areas is typical of angiomyolipoma, while the areas of fatty change in hepatocellular carcinoma are almost avascular. The diagnosis of hepatic angiomyolipoma is easy when a fatty lesion is discovered in a patient with known tuberous sclerosis. Moreover, when the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis is not known, other lesions, both benign and 1054 Lipomyelocele-Lipomyeloschisis malignant containing areas of fatty density, may mimic angiomyolipoma. Seldom, hepatic angiomyolipomas do not contain fat and then the diagnosis remains unclear requiring fine-needle aspiration biopsy (2). Liposarcoma Fat density or signal intensity may be evident in some low-grade liposarcoma, commonly with irregular nodular tumor septae or variable amounts of solid nonfatty tissue; however, this is increasingly sparse in higher grade lesions. Neoplasms, Soft Tissues, Malignant Lipomatous Neoplasms, Hepatic Liposarcoma, Hepatic Primary liposarcoma of the liver, although extremely rare, must be considered in the differential diagnosis of a hepatic mass that develops in a noncirrhotic liver. The presence of fatty areas in the case of differentiated lesions is highly suggestive of liposarcoma. Liposarcoma, Hepatic Rare mesenchymal malignancy originating from lipoblasts, which usually has been described in the retroperitoneum and extremities, and only in very few cases in the liver. This tumor presents as an isolated usually infiltrating and large mass developing in a noncirrhotic liver. Liver Allografting Transplantation, Hepatic Lipomyelocele-Lipomyeloschisis Congenital Malformations, Spine and Spinal Cord Liver Cirrhosis Cirrhosis, Hepatic Lipophagic Granuloma Nonsuppurative inflammation in an area of fat necrosis, gradually evolving to a scar.
Other modalities of therapy have been proposed from time to time pulse pressure 80 mmhg buy coreg 6.25mg lowest price, and still others are under investigation arrhythmia interpretation discount coreg 25 mg otc. The beneficial effects ascribed to steroids and antihistamines in the treatment of cold injury have not been clinically demonstrated heart attack types cheap coreg 12.5mg with mastercard. In studies of microcirculation of experimental animals following freezing and thawing blood pressure and anxiety generic coreg 6.25 mg online, Mundth (1964) reported that immediately following thawing the circulation was apparently unimpaired, but within a few minutes, evidence of obstruction could be seen in the venules. The obstruction apparently began with aggregations of platelets, followed by piling up of erythrocytes behind them with stasis extending back through the capillary bed to the arterioles. Within two hours or less, the stasis had become irreversible, and the vessels were totally filled with a structureless, hyaline-like material. There was tissue edema and evidence of extravasation of hemoglobin into the perivascular spaces. Mundth investigated the use of low molecular weight Dextran in rabbits following freezing and thawing. Examination of the microcirculation demonstrated that the low molecular weight Dextran had alleviated the post-thawing obstruction and was effective in reducing tissue loss is frozen rabbit feet if it was infused as late as two hours following thawing. Circumstances in which the potential exists for the development of hyperthermia conditions are ubiquitous. In his roles as industrial medical officer and general medical officer, the flight surgeon is frequently involved not only in the treatment of such cases, but also in the assessment of environmental risks, evaluation of equipment, and training of personnel. The term "stress" denotes the force or load acting upon the biological system, and the term "strain" is used to designate any resulting distortion of the biological system. Conventionally, stress factors are heat, cold, humidity, radiation, air movement, and surface temperature. Thermal strain, as a response to the imposed thermal stress, may manifest itself in specific cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, respiratory, renal, endocrine, and other reactions which differ in type or degree from accepted norms. A thermal stress is categorized as acceptable when man is able to compensate without undue strain, but it is considered unacceptable when man is able to compensate but incurs severe strain, or when he is unable to compensate and incurs excessive strain. Thermal strains are categorized as those interfering with work performance and safety, and those with overt manifestations of physiological decompensation, such as heat rash, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke, or cold injuries. Table 20-2 contains frequently encountered symbols used to designate environmental and physiological variables in heat exchange and their definitions. The interaction between man and a heat stress environment can be represented by the empirical Heat Balance Equation: M - E=S where 20-29 U. Radiation, conduction, convection, and vaporization of water as methods of heat exchange have been discussed in an earlier section of this chapter. Table 20-2 Symbols and Definitions for Physical Factors in the Thermal Environment and Physiological Factors in Heat Exchange 20-30 Thermal Stresses and Injuries Heat transfer by radiation (R) and by convection and conduction (C) between man and his environment may result in a positive or negative heat balance. For example, if the environment is cooler than the man, a negative (toward the environment) heat balance will result. Conversely, when the environment is warmer than the subject, a positive heat balance (toward the subject) results. Table 20-3 illustrates how the Heat Balance Equation applies to three different circumstances of temperature and vapor pressure gradients between skin and environment. It should be noted that when < Tg and Pwa approaches or equals Pws equilibrium is not possible either at rest or during work. Table 20-3 Heat Balance Under Different External Temperature Gradients and Factors Limiting Endurance Time for Work Thermoregulation. Although the thermoregulatory mechanisms in man have not been fully explicated, animal experiments have provided convincing evidence that the temperature regulating center in man lies in the hypothalamus. The anterior portion appears to contain the "heat loss" center which responds to increases in its own temperature as well as to afferent nerve impulses from receptors in the skin. The center mediates heat loss through increased blood flow to the skin and sweating (man) or panting (other mammals). Minard (1973), in his excellent discussion of the physiology of heat stress, proposes a model for the thermoregulatory system controlling body temperature under conditions of heat stress. He structures the model as an analog of an engineering system known as a negative feedback proportional controller. Feedback is negative because the error signal is the difference between the input, the set point of the thermostat (37. In the absence of a heat load, central drive is zero, output and input being equal. The model predicts that when equilibrium is reached under a given heat load, core temperature and mean skin temperature (output of the system) will stabilize at a level above the set point by an amount also proportional to the load.
Such a pattern is typical for an abscess arrhythmia center of connecticut discount generic coreg uk, but it may be seen in other entities including ischemic foci in muscle and necrotic soft tissue tumors hypertension medication drugs purchase coreg line. There is diffuse muscle enlargement with intermediate signal intensity on T1-weighted images blood pressure chart elderly discount coreg 25mg visa, and diffuse high signal intensity on T2-weighted images sometimes with abscesses (4) blood pressure medication vivid dreams buy generic coreg. The precise diagnosis is made after aspiration or biopsy and the culture of the abnormal muscle. With necrotizing fasciitis, the abnormalities are seen in the subcutaneous fat, as for cellulitis, with an extension in the deep fasciae between muscles and into muscles. Muscle involvement is not required for making the diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis but fascial involvement is. Linear high signal intensity is seen in both superficial and deep fasciae representing the fascial necrosis. Postcontrast T1-weighted images show linear enhancement of the fascia, focal enhancement of the affected muscles, and peripheral enhancement of the abscesses. Contrast administration is not necessary for making the diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. During the surgical debridement, I Abscess Abscesses, even sizeable ones, are difficult to discern on plain radiographs, but their visualization is facilitated by signs such as periosteal reaction or joint effusions. The abscess content could be hyperechoic, isoechoic, or appears as diffuse homogeneous low-level echoes, mimicking a solid mass. Color Doppler imaging, dynamic compression of the fluid collection, and motion of the purulent material within the collection may help differentiate echogenic fluid from a solid tumor or hematoma. Ultrasonography (a) shows diffuse thickening of the skin and subcutaneous tissues characterized by a reticular pattern of anechoic strands. Septic Tenosynovitis/Septic Bursitis Septic or aseptic causes of tenosynovitis and bursitis cannot be distinguished by imaging features. Diabetic Foot Infection Foot disease in diabetics is a common problem and results frequently in one or more of the following: vascular disease, infection, and neuroarthropathy. Infection in diabetics is usually related to a soft tissue injury, followed by cellulitis; the infection may remain limited to the soft tissues or extend to the bones and the joints. However, soft tissue details are limited and sensitivity and specificity for determining infection are low, especially in the early stages of infection. Combined indium-111-labeled leukocyte technetium phosphate bone scintigraphy is the radionuclide procedure of choice for determining infection in neuropathic joints. Soft tissue ulcerations account for more than 90% of diabetic pedal osteomyelitis cases. They usually occur under pressure areas of the foot, such as the plantar soft tissues beneath or adjacent to the first and fifth metatarsal heads, the calcaneal tuberosity, the distal phalanges, and the malleoli. Figure 2 Fifty-year-old diabetic woman with erythema, edema, and firm mass on the thigh. Thick, hyperemic rim of the soft tissue abscess is seen at the periphery with color Doppler sonogram. Figure 3 Chest wall tuberculosis arising from costochondral infection in a 65-year-old woman with active pulmonary tuberculosis. T1 sagittal image (a) shows abnormal, low signal in two adjacent vertebral bodies with endplate destruction. There are soft tissue masses extending anteriorly and posteriorly to the vertebral bodies. Fat-saturated T1 sagittal (b) and axial (c) contrast-enhanced axial images show the anterior subligamentous, epidural, and paraspinal abscesses. Abnormalities suggesting diabetic neuroarthropathy are joint misalignment and destruction and fragmentation of bone at the intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joints. Foreign bodies in the soft tissue create an inflammatory reaction and may lead to the occurrence of an abscess, a sinus tract, or osteomyelitis. Nuclear Medicine Nuclear medicine plays an important role in the assessment of periprosthetic infection and osteomyelitis in children, including early detection of infectious disease, differentiation of osteomyelitis from cellulitis, and identification of renewed activity in cases of chronic osteomyelitis.
S u m m a r y: the e n d o f e a c h c h a p t e r i s a s u mma r y t h a t s e r v e s a s a c o n c i s e At r e v i e w o f the k e y p o i n t s d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l t h r o u g h o u t the c h a p t e r arteria faciei generic 6.25mg coreg with mastercard. D e t a i l e d a n s w e r s a r e p r o v i d e d i n a n appendix in the back of the book blood pressure testing order genuine coreg on-line. G l o s s a r y: e w t o t h i s e d i t i o n heart attack quiz generic coreg 12.5mg with mastercard, a g l o s s a r y o f k e y t e r ms l o c a t e d i n the b a c k o f the N book blood pressure jadakiss lyrics purchase 6.25 mg coreg, is provided for quick reference. C o n n e c t i o n W e b S i t eh:i s s t u d e n t a n d i n s t r u c t o r s i t e T (h t t p: w w w. The syllabus c o n t a i n s o b j e c t i v e s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s o f k e y t e r ms o r g a n i ze d b y c h a p t e r s a n d the " b o t t o m l i n e, " w h i c h p r o v i d e s a s y n o p s i s o f the mo s t b a s i c i n f o r ma t i o n t h a t s t u d e n t s s h o u l d h a v e ma s t e r e d f r o m the i r s t u d i e s. In a d d iyt oh a s mo v e d Si mbr i o n, t o the C o n n e c t i o n W e b S i tmbr y od e mo n s t r a t e s n o r ma l e mb r y o l o g i c e v e n t s a n d Si. T h i s u n i q u e e d u c a t i o n a l t o o l o f f e r s s i x o r i g i n a l v e c t o r a r t a n i ma t i o n mo d u l e s t o i l l u s t r a t e the c o mp l e x, t h r e e - d i me n s i o n a l a s p e c t s o f e mb r y o l o g y. M o d u l e s i n c l u d e n o r ma l e a r l y d e v e l o p me n t, a s w e l l a s h e a d a n d n e c k, c a r d i o v a s c u l a r, g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l, g e n i t o u r i n a r y, a n d p u l mo n a r y s y s t e m d e v e l o p me n t. To g e the r, the t e xt b o o k a n d c o n n e c t i o n s i t e p r o v i d e a u s e r - f r i e n d l y a n d i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o l e a r n i n g e mb r y o l o g y a n d i t s c l i n i c a l r e l e v a n c. T h e s t u d y o f the s e p h e n o me n a iesmcb rl ye dl o g, ya n d the f i e l d a l o i n c l u d e s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f the mo l e c u l a r, c e l l u l a r, a n d s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n t o f o r ma t i o n o f a n o r g a n i s m. T h e s e s t u d i e s a r e i mp o r t a n t b e c a u s e the y p r o v i d e knowledge essential for creating health care strategies for better reproductive o u t c o me s. T h u s, o u r i n c r e a s i n g l y b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e mb r y o l o g y h a s r e s u l t e d i n n e w t e c h n i q u e s f o r p r e n a t a l d i a g n o s e s a n d t r e a t me n t s, the r a p e u t i c p r o c e d u r e s t o c i r c u mv e n t p r o b l e ms w i t h i n f e r t i l i t y, a n d me c h a n i s ms t o p r e v e n t b i r t h d e f e c t s, t h l e a d i n g c a u s e o f i n f a n t mo r t a l i t y. T h e s e i mp r o v e me n t s i n p r e n a t a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i v e h e a l t h c a r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t, n o t o n l y f o r the i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o i mp r o v e d b i r t h o u t c o me s b u t a l s o f o r the i r l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s p o s t n a t a l l y. In f a c t, b o t h o u r c o g n i t i v e capacity and our behavioral characteristics are affected by our prenatal e xp e r i e n c e s, a n d f a c t o r s s u c h a s ma t e r n a l s mo k i n g, n u t r i t i o n, s t r e s s, d i a b e t e s, e t c. F u r the r mo r e, the s e e xp e r i e n c e s, i n c o mb i n a t i o n w i t h mo l e c u l a r a n d c e l l u l a r f a c t o r s, d e t e r mi n e o u r p o t e n t i a l t o d e v e l o p certain adult diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. T hus, our p r e n a t a l d e v e l o p me n t p r o d u c e s ma n y r a mi f i c a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g o u r h e a l t h f o r b o t h the s h o r t a n d l o n g t e r m, ma k i n g the s t u d y o f e mb r y o l o g y a n d f e t a l d e v e l o p me n t a n i mp o r t a n t t o p i c f o r a l l h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s. Al s o, w i t h the e xc e p t i o n o f a f e w s p e c i a l t i e s, the v a s t ma j o r i t y o f p h y s i c i a n s a n d h e a l t h c a r e w o r k e r s w i l l h a v e a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n t e r a c t w i t h w o me n o f c h i l d b e a r i n g a g e, c r e a t i n g the p o t e n t i a l f o r the s e p r o v i d e r s t o h a v e a ma j o r i mp a c t o n the o u t c o me o f the s e d e v e l o p me n t a l processes and their sequelae. Scientific approaches to study e mb r y o l o g y h a v e p r o g r e s s e d o v e r h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s. N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y, a n a t o mi c a l a p p r o a c h e s d o mi n a t e d e a r l y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s. O b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e ma d e, a n d the s e b e c a me mo r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d w i t h a d v a n c e s i n o p t i c a l e q u i p me n t a n d d i s s e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s. C o mp a r a t i v e a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y s t u d i e s w e r e p a r t o f t h i s e q u a t i o n a s s c i e n t i s t s ma d e c o mp a r i s o n s b e t w e e n s p e c i e s a n d s o b e g a n t o u n d e r s t a n d the p r o g r e s s i o n o f d e v e l o p me n t a l p h e n o me n a. Al s o i n v e s t i g a t e d w e r e o f f s p r i n g w i t h b i r t h d e f e c t s, a n d the s e w e r e c o mp a r e d t o o r g a n i s ms w i t h n o r ma l d e v e l o p me n t a l p a t t e r n s. T h e s t u d y o f the e mb r y o l o g i c a l o r i g i n s a n d c a u s e s f o r the s e b i r t h d e f e c t s w a s c a l l e t e r a t o l o g y. F e r t i l i ze d e g g i mme d i a t e l y p r i o r t o f u s i o n o f the ma l e a n d f e ma l e 1 p r o n u c l e iB. In the 2 0 t h c e n t u r y, the f i e l d o f e xp e r i me n t a l e mb r y o l o g y b l o s s o me d. N u me r o u s e xp e r i me n t s w e r e d e v i s e d t o t r a c e c e l l s d u r i n g d e v e l o p me n t t o d e t e r mi n e the i r c e l l l i n e a g e s. T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s i n c l u d e d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t r a n s p a r e n t e mb r y o s f r o m t u n i c a t e s t h a t c o n t a i n e d p i g me n t e d c e l l s t h a t c o u l d b e v i s u a l i ze d t h r o u g h a mi c r o s c o p. L a t e r, v i t a l d y e s w e r e u s e d t o s t a i n l i v i n g c e l l s t o f o l l o w the i r f a t e s. Still later in the 1960s, radioactive labels and autoradiographic techniques were e mp l o y e d. O n e o f the f i r s t g e n e t i c ma r k e r s a l s o a r o s e a b o u t t h i s t i me w i t h the c r e a t i o n o f c h i c k - q u a i l c h i me r a s.
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